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Full Length Essay on The Rise of Extremism in Pakistan and its Regional Implications. (PCS 2023)

Outline

I. Introduction

Context: extremism as an evolving threat
Pakistan’s unique geopolitical location
Why the topic matters now
Thesis Statement: The rise of extremism in Pakistan is the outcome of intertwined historical legacies, socio-economic inequalities, political miscalculations, and regional geopolitical conflicts. Its escalation has not only destabilized Pakistan internally—through violence, institutional erosion, and social fragmentation—but has also created deep regional implications by fueling cross-border militancy, straining diplomatic ties, obstructing economic cooperation, and challenging the broader security architecture of South Asia.

II. Historical and Geopolitical Origins of Extremism in Pakistan

Topic Sentence: To understand the current wave of extremism, one must first examine the historical and geopolitical dynamics that shaped Pakistan’s political landscape since the late 20th century.
Cold War politics
Afghan Jihad, US-Pak collaboration
Rise of militant groups
Zia’s Islamization
Post-9/11 repercussions

III. Socio-economic Deprivation and the Failure of Public Institutions

Topic Sentence: Socio-economic inequalities, combined with weak public institutions, have created an environment in which extremist ideologies can easily penetrate marginalized communities.
Poverty, unemployment
Rural–urban educational disparity
Role of madrassas
Weak governance and corruption

IV. Ideological and Religious Factors

Topic Sentence: Beyond politics and economics, ideological manipulation and sectarian narratives have played a central role in fueling extremism in Pakistan.
Sectarian divisions (Sunni–Shia conflicts)
Misinterpretation of religious texts
Foreign funding of sectarian madrassas
Online extremism

V. Political Instability and Policy Mismanagement

Topic Sentence: Persistent political instability and inconsistent counter-terrorism policies have further strengthened the roots of extremism.
Civil–military imbalance
Shifting policies toward militant groups
Weak implementation of National Action Plan
Delayed justice system

VI. Internal Security Consequences

Topic Sentence: The internal consequences of extremism have been devastating, weakening state institutions, disrupting social harmony, and hindering national development.
Thousands of civilian and military casualties
Impact on education (APS attack)
Women’s rights and minority persecution
Economic losses

VII. Regional Implications of Extremism

Topic Sentence: The rise of extremism in Pakistan has produced far-reaching regional consequences, affecting neighboring countries and undermining regional cooperation.
Pakistan–Afghanistan instability
India–Pakistan tensions
Impact on China–Pakistan Economic Corridor
Effect on SAARC and regional trade
International perception

VIII. Measures to Counter Extremism

Topic Sentence: Addressing extremism requires a multidimensional strategy rooted in education, economic reforms, institutional strengthening, and regional cooperation.
Educational reforms
Youth employment programs
Madrassa regulation
Strengthening police and judiciary
International partnerships

IX. Conclusion

Summary
Restated thesis
Call for long-term commitment

Extremism in Pakistan has evolved from a localized security concern into one of the most significant challenges shaping its national identity, political stability, and international relations. Over the last four decades, Pakistan has witnessed a complex transformation of militant ideologies—from sectarian groups and nationalist insurgencies to global terrorist organizations with transnational networks. These developments have not emerged in isolation; rather, they are deeply rooted in historical events, socio-economic realities, and shifting geopolitical alliances. The rise of extremism in Pakistan is the outcome of intertwined historical legacies, socio-economic inequalities, political miscalculations, and regional geopolitical conflicts. Its escalation has not only destabilized Pakistan internally—through violence, institutional erosion, and social fragmentation—but has also created deep regional implications by fueling cross-border militancy, straining diplomatic ties, obstructing economic cooperation, and challenging the broader security architecture of South Asia.

To understand the current wave of extremism, one must first examine the historical and geopolitical dynamics that shaped Pakistan’s political landscape since the late 20th century. The roots of extremism can be traced back to the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, which transformed Pakistan’s northwestern region into the center of global resistance against Soviet forces. Pakistan, supported by the United States and Saudi Arabia, trained and armed thousands of fighters known as the Mujahideen. While this policy served immediate geopolitical interests during the Cold War, it produced long-lasting consequences. The withdrawal of the Soviet Union left behind a massive supply of weapons, trained militants, and religious networks that later evolved into extremist organizations. General Zia-ul-Haq’s Islamization drive during the 1980s further strengthened conservative religious forces, institutionalizing a rigid ideological environment that extremist groups later exploited. After 9/11, Pakistan became a frontline state in the US-led War on Terror, leading to military operations in tribal areas but also triggering retaliatory attacks from militant groups such as TTP (Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan). These historical shifts reveal how geopolitics unintentionally nurtured the environment extremists needed to grow.

Socio-economic inequalities, combined with weak public institutions, have created an environment in which extremist ideologies can easily penetrate marginalized communities. Pakistan faces deep structural inequalities, with millions living in poverty and lacking access to basic education and healthcare. Rural areas, in particular, suffer from high unemployment, illiteracy, and limited state presence—conditions that extremist organizations exploit. Madrassas, while not inherently problematic, often fill the gap left by weak public schooling systems. However, some unregulated madrassas promote radical ideologies funded by foreign states with sectarian agendas. The lack of economic opportunities leaves youth vulnerable to radical recruitment, as extremist groups often provide a sense of identity, financial support, and belonging. Moreover, corruption and governance failures undermine public trust in institutions, making extremist narratives more appealing to those who feel politically and economically excluded.

Beyond politics and economics, ideological manipulation and sectarian narratives have played a central role in fueling extremism in Pakistan. Sectarian divisions, particularly between Sunni and Shia communities, have intensified over time due to foreign funding, radical clerics, and weak regulatory frameworks. Extremist groups exploit religious symbols and reinterpret sacred texts to justify violence and intolerance. In addition, the proliferation of social media platforms has enabled extremist ideologies to spread faster and reach wider audiences. Online propaganda radicalizes individuals, especially youth, by presenting extremist narratives as heroic or religiously justified. This ideological war has contributed to the rise of militant groups that target minorities, religious institutions, and even state representatives.

Persistent political instability and inconsistent counter-terrorism policies have further strengthened the roots of extremism. Pakistan’s political landscape has long been marked by tensions between civilian governments and the military establishment. These tensions often result in inconsistent policies toward militant groups, sometimes tolerating certain factions for strategic purposes while cracking down on others. This selective approach has allowed extremism to evolve and diversify. The National Action Plan (NAP), introduced after the 2014 APS Peshawar attack, was a comprehensive policy on paper but faced weak implementation. The justice system remains slow and inefficient, with low conviction rates for terrorism-related cases. Political instability, frequent power shifts, and reactive policymaking have all contributed to an environment where extremism can adapt and survive.

The internal consequences of extremism have been devastating, weakening state institutions, disrupting social harmony, and hindering national development. Pakistan has suffered tens of thousands of casualties due to terrorist attacks targeting civilians, security personnel, schools, and public spaces. The attack on Army Public School in 2014 remains one of the darkest tragedies in the country’s history, highlighting the brutality of extremist groups. Women and minorities have also suffered disproportionately, facing restrictions, threats, and discrimination. The economic impact is equally severe; according to various estimates, terrorism has cost Pakistan billions of dollars in lost investment, declining tourism, and damaged infrastructure. Social divisions deepen due to sectarian violence, making communities more polarized and vulnerable to further radicalization.

The rise of extremism in Pakistan has produced far-reaching regional consequences, affecting neighboring countries and undermining regional cooperation. Pakistan’s internal instability has direct implications for Afghanistan, where militant groups operate across porous borders. Extremism complicates peace efforts in Afghanistan and undermines regional stability. India–Pakistan tensions have significantly worsened due to cross-border militancy, leading to military skirmishes, diplomatic breakdowns, and mistrust that impacts the entire region. China, Pakistan’s major economic partner, is also concerned about extremist threats to CPEC (China–Pakistan Economic Corridor). Any disruption to this project affects regional trade connectivity and economic growth. SAARC, the main regional organization in South Asia, has been repeatedly weakened due to India–Pakistan disputes tied to extremism. Internationally, Pakistan’s image has suffered, affecting its diplomatic standing and foreign investment prospects.

Addressing extremism requires a multidimensional strategy rooted in education, economic reforms, institutional strengthening, and regional cooperation. Reforming the education system is essential, including revising curricula, regulating madrassas, and expanding modern schooling in underserved regions. Economic initiatives that create employment opportunities for youth will reduce vulnerability to radicalization. Strengthening law enforcement, improving intelligence coordination, and modernizing the criminal justice system are also critical. Regionally, Pakistan must work with Afghanistan, China, Iran, and India to reduce cross-border militancy. Diplomatic engagement, information-sharing, and joint security operations can significantly reduce extremist threats.

In conclusion, the rise of extremism in Pakistan is the result of decades of historical decisions, geopolitical pressures, and domestic vulnerabilities. Its consequences extend far beyond Pakistan’s borders, affecting regional security, diplomacy, and economic cooperation. A comprehensive, long-term strategy that addresses socio-economic disparities, strengthens institutions, regulates ideological spaces, and enhances regional collaboration is essential to counter the menace of extremism. Only through sustained national and regional efforts can Pakistan ensure lasting peace, stability, and progress.

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CSS Solved Precis 2025

1. Distil the passage into a précis and suggest an apt title:

Homi K. Bhabha, a prominent postcolonial scholar, advances a profoundly philosophical yet grounded concept of nationalism, positing that “Nations, like narratives, lose their origins in the myths of time and only fully encounter their horizons in the mind’s eye,” thereby highlighting the complex interplay between the imagined, the mythical, and the material in the construction of national identity. Nations, like narratives, are constructed through historical contingency, shaped by ethnic obsessions and regional affiliations that often obscure their origins. As a result, national identities can become rigid and exclusionary, antagonizing the notion of humanism envisioned by ancient philosophers like Socrates and Plato. This idea has implications for our understanding of humanism, a cornerstone of intellectual traditions from Goethe and Rousseau’s emphasis on the universal human experience to Al-Ghazali and Ibn Rushd’s advocacy for reason and compassion as bridges between cultures. Al-Ghazali’s “The Alchemy of Happiness” strikes a balance between promoting local identity and warning against provincial, insular nationalism, making him a votary of cultural exchange and understanding. He advocates for an evenhanded approach, balancing love for one’s land with justice for all citizens. In “The Revival of Religious Sciences,” Al-Ghazali emphasizes balancing universalism and particularism, recognizing that national identity must be tempered by justice and equality. By promoting inclusive citizenship, Al-Ghazali offers an antidote to exclusivist nationalist ideologies. By exploring the intersections between nationalism and humanism, Bhabha’s work also encourages us to think critically about how national identities are constructed and imagine new forms of global citizenship prioritizing shared humanity over narrow national interests. However, the rise of nationalism has often led to a narrowing of perspectives, prioritizing regional affiliations over universal values, resulting in a stringent and macho form of patriotism that stifles dissent and creativity. Like a chameleon, nationalism can adapt and change, often blurring the lines between patriotism and xenophobia. Altogether, nationalism is not a bane, its mixed benefits over the last century have been a double-edged sword, yielding a staggering array of positive and negative consequences. On one hand, nations have become increasingly aware of the need to align themselves with pluralism and egalitarian schemes. However, the desire to dominate, as exemplified by the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel’s idea of organic borders, continues to have a silent appeal, often manifesting in bizarre and violent forms, such as the recent bloodshed in Palestine and the earlier Bosnian massacre. This scary trail is long and hard to absorb, especially when democracy itself has been exposed as a mere façade, leaving many to blurt out frustrations and disillusionments. As the philosopher Allama Iqbal aptly put it in his famous poem, “The Devil’s Parliament,” democracy is merely the outer crust, while the essence is imperialist. Iqbal’s words ring true, warning us against the uncritical subservience and adoration of nationalism, which can lead to historical myopia, strengthening dictatorial hegemony and incarcerating the human spirit within the narrow confines of love for the land. Perhaps democracy is the safest carrier of the seed of nationalism, transporting it under the guise of economic equality. Still, weaker nations face the political bravado of the powerful leaving the meager nations to be content with mere paeans of love for border and territorial integrity. Imperialism planted the embryo of nationalism, abandoning the wretched children of the earth to fend for themselves, left to navigate the treacherous waters of self-determination. The power of nationalism is a potent form of Volksgeist – a term coined by Johann Gottfried Herder to describe a nation’s unique spirit or character – that can be both unifying and divisive, depending on how it is wielded. In this context, a more frugal and nuanced approach to nationalism is needed, one that balances national pride with a commitment to universal values and human rights.

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CSS Solved Precis 2024

1. Write a précis of the following passage and suggest a suitable title:

In the heart of bustling cities, urban green spaces stand as oases of tranquility, providing respite from the hustle and bustle. Parks, adorned with vibrant flora, become havens for relaxation and recreation. The greenery offers a sanctuary for diverse wildlife, creating a delicate balance between urban development and environmental preservation. Beyond their aesthetic appeal, city parks play a crucial role in fostering community bonds. Families gather for picnics, friends engage in sports, and individuals find solace amidst nature’s embrace. These communal spaces serve as venues for cultural events, open-air concerts, and art installations, enriching the urban experience. The benefits of urban green spaces extend beyond leisure. They contribute to improved air quality, mitigate the urban heat island effect, and promote overall well-being. Access to nature within city limits becomes a vital aspect of mental health, offering a refuge for introspection and rejuvenation. However, the challenge lies in balancing the increasing urbanization with the preservation of green spaces. Sustainable urban planning becomes imperative to ensure the coexistence of concrete jungles and natural havens. Efforts to create and maintain parks, tree-lined avenues, and green rooftops become integral components of shaping cities that prioritize both human and environmental health. As cities evolve, the preservation and enhancement of urban green spaces become a shared responsibility. The vision is to cultivate urban landscapes that seamlessly integrate nature into the tapestry of city life, fostering a sustainable and harmonious cohabitation between human progress and the environment.

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CSS Solved Precis 2022

1. Write a précis of the following and suggest a suitable title:

The fear of human beings when faced with the mysteries of life and their weakness by comparison with the vastness of nature created in them a need to communicate with the divine, with the superior powers which they believed regulated the universe and determined their own fates. Knowledge of wishes of the gods was always a sure guide for human behavior. In ancient Greece, the precise nature of these wishes was ‘decoded’ by the art of giving oracles, practiced by soothsayers who had the gift of understanding the signs or signals sent by the gods.

The soothsayers uttered their oracles by interpreting flashes of lightning, rolls of thunder or the flights of certain birds of prey (omens); alternatively, they might observe the direction in which the fire burned when a sacrifice was made, examine the entrails of animals which had just been sacrificed, or base judgments on the sacrificial beast’s willingness to approach the altar. The interpretation of dreams was popular too, and so was palmistry. The most notable soothsayers of ancient Greece were Tiresias, Calchas, Helenus, Amphiaraus and Cassandra.

However, there were abundant instances in which the gods did not manifest themselves to the faithful in the forms of signs but spoke directly to an intermediate who for a short time was overcome by a ‘divine mania’ and transcended his own human essence. Here the prophet– or more usually the prophetess– entered a state of ecstasy in which he or she delivered the message from the gods to the suppliants.

These practices for foreseeing the future were the basis on which the ancient Greek oracles operated. Each oracle was located within a properly-organized sanctuary and was directly associated with one or other of the gods. Apollo was the archetypal soothsayer for the Greeks, the god who was responsible for conveying to mortals the decisions pronounced by Zeus. The most important of the oracles, that at Delphi, delivered the messages with the intervention of Apollo, while the oldest that of Dodona, functioned with the assistance of Zeus.

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CSS Solved Precis 2021

1. Write a précis of the following and suggest a suitable title:

Nizar Hassan was born in 1960 and raised in the village of Mashhad, near Nazareth, where he has lived with his family. He studied anthropology at Haifa University and after graduating worked in TV. Starting in 1990, he turned to cinema. In 1994, he produced Independence, in which he pokes his Palestinian interlocutors about what they think of the bizarre Israeli notion of their “independence”. They have stolen another people’s homeland and call the act “independence”! Hassan dwells on that absurdity.

As the world’s attention was captured by the news of Israel planning to “annex” yet a bit more of Palestine and add it to what they have already stolen, I received an email from Nizar Hassan, the pre-eminent Palestinian documentary filmmaker. He wrote to me about his latest film, My Grandfather’s Path, and included a link to the director’s cut. It was a blessing. They say choose your enemies carefully for you would end up like them. The same goes for those opposing Zionist settler colonialists. If you are too incensed and angered by their daily dose of claptrap, the vulgarity of their armed robbery of Palestine, you would soon become like them and forget yourself and what beautiful ideas, ideals, and aspirations once animated your highest dreams. Never fall into that trap. For decades, aspects of Palestinian and world cinema, art, poetry, fiction, and drama have done for me precisely that: saved me from that trap. They have constantly reminded me what all our politics are about – a moment of poetic salvation from it all.

Nizar Hassan’s new documentary is one such work – in a moment of dejection over Israel’s encroachment on Palestinian rights and the world’s complicity, it has put Palestine in perspective. The film is mercifully long, beautifully paced and patient, a masterfully crafted work of art – a Palestinian’s epic ode to his homeland. A shorter version of My Grandfather’s Path has been broadcast on Al Jazeera Arabic in three parts, but it must be seen in its entirety, in one go. It is a pilgrimage that must not be interrupted.

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CSS Solved Precis 2020

1. Write a précis of the following passage in about 120 words and also suggest a suitable title: (20)

It is in the temperate countries of northern Europe that the beneficial effects of cold are most manifest. A cold climate seems to stimulate energy by acting as an obstacle. In the face of an insuperable obstacle our energies are numbed by despair; the total absence of obstacles, on the other hand leaves no room for the exercise and training of energy; but a struggle against difficulties that we have a fair hope of over-coming, calls into active operation all our powers. In like manner, while intense cold numbs human energies, and a hot climate affords little motive for exertion, moderate cold seems to have a bracing effect on the human race. In a moderately cold climate man is engaged in an arduous, but no hopeless struggles and with the inclemency of the weather. He has to build strong houses and procure thick clothes to keep himself warm. To supply fuel for his fires, he must hew down trees and dig coal out of the earth. In the open air, unless he moves quickly, he will suffer pain from the biting wind. Finally, in order to replenish the expenditure of bodily tissue caused by his necessary exertions, he has to procure for himself plenty of nourishing food.

Quite different is the lot of man in the tropics. In the neighbourhood of the equator there is little need of clothes or fire, and it is possible with perfect comfort and no danger to health, to pass the livelong day stretched out on the bare ground beneath the shade of a tree. A very little fruit or vegetable food is required to sustain life under such circumstances, and that little can be obtained without much exertion from the bounteous earth.

We may recognize must the same difference between ourselves at different seasons of the year, as there is between human nature in the tropics and in temperate climes. In hot weather we are generally languid and inclined to take life easily; but when the cold season comes, we find that we are more inclined to vigorous exertion of our minds and bodies.

Solved Precis of CSS 2020

Topic: Manto — A Realist and Humanist Writer

The best way to deal with children is to treat them with love. If children are treated with love and affection by their teachers, they will allow their teachers in their matters and will look the suggestion given by their teachers without arguing. In this way, a teacher will be able to guide its student in best possible manner and will not require any rules even for a naughty child. But this affection should be genuine and must not posses some purpose with it. Though, it is difficult for a teacher to spend full-time with children. However, if they only spend two hours with children, it will make a clear difference.

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CSS Solved Precis 2018

1. Write a précis of the following passage in about 120 words and also suggest a suitable title: (20)

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CSS Solved Precis 2017

1. Write a précis of the following passage and also suggest a suitable title:

All the evils in this world are brought about by the persons who are always up and doing, but do not know when they ought to be up nor what they ought to be doing. The devil, I take it, is still the busiest creature in the universe, and I can quite imagine him denouncing laziness and becoming angry at the smallest waste of time. In his kingdom, I will wager, nobody is allowed to do nothing, not even for a single afternoon. The world, we all freely admit, is in a muddle but I for one do not think that it is laziness that has brought it to such a pass. It is not the active virtues that it lacks but the passive ones; it is capable of anything but kindness and a little steady thought. There is still plenty of energy in the world (there never were more fussy people about), but most of it is simply misdirected. If, for example, in July 1914, when there was some capital idling weather, everybody, emperors, Kings, arch dukes, statesmen, generals, journalists, had been suddenly smitten with an intense desire to do nothing, just to hang about in the sunshine and consume tobacco, then we should all have been much better off than we are now. But no, the doctrine of the strenuous life still went unchallenged; there must be no time wasted; something must be done. Again, suppose our statesmen, instead of rushing off to Versailles with a bundle of ill-digested notions and great deal of energy to dissipate had all taken a fortnight off, away from all correspondence and interviews and what not, and had simply lounged about on some hillside or other apparently doing nothing for the first time in their energetic lives, then they might have gone to their so-called peace conference and come away again with their reputations still unsoiled and the affairs of the world in good trim. Even at the present time, if half of the politicians in Europe would relinquish the notion that laziness is crime and go away and do nothing for a little space, we should certainly gain by it. Other examples come crowding into mind. Thus, every now and then, certain religious sects hold conferences; but though there are evils abroad that are mountains high, though the fate of civilization is still doubtful, the members who attend these conferences spend their time condemning the length of ladies’ skirts and the noisiness of dance bands. They would all be better employed lying flat on their backs somewhere, staring at the sky and recovering their mental health.

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CSS Solved Precis 2015

1. Make a précis of the following text and suggest a suitable title. (20)

In studying the breakdowns of civilizations, the writer has subscribed to the conclusion — no new discovery! — that war has proved to have been the proximate cause of the breakdown of every civilization which is known for certain to have broken down, in so far as it has been possible to analyze the nature of these breakdowns and to account for their occurrence. Like other evils, war has an insidious way of appearing not intolerable until it has secured such a stronghold upon the lives of its addicts that they no longer have the power to escape from its grip when its deadliness has become manifest. In the early stages of a civilization’s growth, the cost of wars in suffering and destruction might seem to be exceeded by the benefits accruing from the winning of wealth and power and the cultivation of the “military virtues”; and, in this phase of history, states have often found themselves able to indulge in war with one another with something like impunity even for the defeated party. War does not begin to reveal its malignity till the war-making society has begun to increase its economic ability to exploit physical nature and its political ability to organize man-power; but, as soon as this happens, the god of war to which the growing society has long since been dedicated proves himself a Moloch by devouring an ever larger share of the increasing fruits of man’s industry and intelligence in the process of taking an ever larger toll of life and happiness; and, when the society’s growth in efficiency reaches a point at which it becomes capable of mobilizing a lethal quantum of its energies and resources for military use, then war reveals itself as being a cancer which is bound to prove fatal to its victim unless he can cut it out and cast it from him, since its malignant tissues have now learnt to grow faster that the healthy tissues on which they feed.

In the past, when this danger-point in the history of the relations between war and civilization has been reached and recognized, serious efforts have sometimes been made to get rid of war in time to save society, and these endeavours have been apt to take one or other of two alternative directions. Salvation cannot, of course, be sought anywhere except in the working of the consciences of individual human beings; but individuals have a choice between trying to achieve their aims through direct action as private citizens and trying to achieve them through indirect action as citizens of states. A personal refusal to lend himself in any way to any war waged by his state for any purpose and in any circumstances is a line of attack against the institution of war that is likely to appeal to an ardent and self-sacrificing nature; by comparison, the alternative peace strategy of seeking to persuade and accustom governments to combine in jointly resisting aggression when it comes and in trying to remove its stimuli before hand may seem a circuitous and unheroic line of attack on the problem. Yet experience up to date indicates unmistakably, in the present writer’s opinion, that the second of these two hard roads is by far the more promising.

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CSS Solved Precis 2014

1. Make a précis of the following passage and suggest a suitable heading.

Probably the only protection for contemporary man is to discover how to use his intelligence in the service of love and kindness. The training of human intelligence must include the simultaneous development of the empathic capacity. Only in this way can intelligence be made an instrument of social morality and responsibility – and thereby increase the chances of survival.
The need to produce human beings with trained morally sensitive intelligence is essentially a challenge to educators and educational institutions. Traditionally, the realm of social morality was left to religion and the churches as guardians or custodians. But their failure to fulfil this responsibility and their yielding to the seductive lures of the men of wealth and pomp and power are documented by history of the last two thousand years and have now resulted in the irrelevant “God Is Dead” theological rhetoric. The more pragmatic men of power have had no time or inclination to deal with the fundamental problems of social morality. For them simplistic Machiavellianism must remain the guiding principle of their decisions – power is morality, morality is power. This over-simplification increases the chances of nuclear devastation. We must therefore hope that educators and educational institutions have the capacity, the commitment and the time to in-still moral sensitivity as an integral part of the complex pattern of functional human intelligence. Some way must be found in the training of human beings to give them the assurance to love, the security to be kind, and the integrity required for a functional empathy.

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